Russian Department

Siberian Folktales and Ways of Life

Translated by MARIE ELAINE PAHILAN '01 and Edited by JANE KNOX-VOINA

Bowdoin College, Spring 2000

From U. Vinokurova's Story of the Sakha People (Yakutsk: Bichik, 1994)

Life styles and Occupations of the Yakut People:

The numbers of horned cattle continually increased in conjunction with the decrease in the number of horses, who were replaced in field work by bulls. The former main food of the Yakuts—mare’s milk and meat—begin to constitute a privilege of the wealthy. Paralleling the increase of horned cattle and the decrease in the number of horses there occurred a transition from the nomadic to a settled Yakut lifestyle. Horned cattle required less pasture than horses and remained nearer to home, requiring the cultivation of a large quattity of grain for winter storage. This kept the Skaha (Yatuts) from wandering.

After agriculture fishing came next in measure and scope, but its significance is rapidly growing, irrevocably strengthening the nomadic camp foundations of ancient Yakut lifestyle. In the northern part of the Yakut territory, a large sector of the population is occupied with fishing. Hunting represents only a suppliment for other occupations. In the north hunting has a greater significance than in the south. Yakuts, living mainly in the north, maintain small herds of reindeer used primarily for transportation and carrying heavy loads.

Yakuts unwillingly enter the ranks of workers and at the least opportunity, although with certain risk of famine, will set themselves up independently. However, the position of a hired worker in a Yakut family in general is easily tolerated. Among the Yakuts, rich families represent an absolutely exceptional phenomenon. The Yakuts have preserved some of their former ancestral lifestyle. To this relates the custom of providing all neighbors with pieces of meat from freshly killed cattle, sharing with them their catch of fish, dividing delicacies with all present, allowing beggars unsuited for work to be present as equal at the table. According to Sakha/Yakut custom every traveler has the right to enter any home at any time of day and night and make himself at home there, to drink and eat, to prepare food or to spend the night.

Robbery and stealing did no exist in the tribe due to the existence of community property. Murder was an exceptional phenomenon. Those outside of the tribewho were found guilty of murder were subjected to ancient tradition of revenge or paid a fine. Ancestral hostility, former ancient wars, are now expressed in the form of intrigues, denunciations, and gossip. Until recent times many criminal affairs were decided by local regulations that did not have legal sanction under the authority of the government.

Shamanic elements in Siberian Folklore

From: A.S. Zhuleva, We Study the Folklore of the People of the Northh (Moscow: Moscow Institute for the Develoment of Educational Systems, 1997).

1. THREE SUNS

Orochi Creation Myth:

In the beginning, three suns shone. At that time, our earth was just beginning to cool down. The earth was still completely liquid, like water. When the three suns shone, the water began to diminish, and the earth to harden. Unbearable heat existed on our earth. The cliffs boiled. Stones boiled.At that time, on earth there were no people, no tribes, no living creatures. There was only one family, Hadau . When the earth hardened, Hadau shot arrows at two suns first killing the older sister with one arrow, and then with another—the younger sister.That left only the middle sun. At certain times the sun, so said the Orochi, takes itself behind its ears. These were visible shadows of the two earlier suns, as if imprints of one or each side of our sun. People look and it seems to them that in the fog three suns become visible. Here is what they all say, "Before there were three suns." After this, Hadau created a family of eagles and a family of ravens. Therefore upon seeing an eagle on a hunt, the Orochi call him their elder (grandfather). And only then did people begin to be born in different places.

pp.. 10-11.

Footnote: The Oroks are a small group of reindeer-herding Tungus people(no more than 750 people) that migrated north across the straits from the Pacific coastal region south of the Amur esturary to live on Sakhalin Island (Forsythe, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p. 207).

2. WHAT CAN NOOM DO?
Nenet Myth

Noom made Man and Dog at the same time. He had made reindeer even earlier and so domestic and wild life lived together from the beginning. Wolves attacked them; therefore part of the reindeer decided to go live with Man, escaping the wolves. Others did not agree. Here they divided and part of the reindeer went over to man, who then began to harness them. The Dog also began life independently and wore clothes. He had a cargo sleigh, which he piled up with food. Once Dog up and ate everything all in one day, not worrying about the future. Then Noom became angry and said; "You do not know how to live independently. Go to Man, live with him and serve him."And so that the Dog did not freeze, he pulled hair from his own head and threw it on the Dog. Quickly hair grew all over. As a result, Dog stopped talking like Man. Since then Dog became the way he is now. Dog is an evil spirit; moreover there is Master of dogs who has a dog-form andwells in the forest strips. This evil spirit brings illness that takes away man's strength, subsequently his bones began to ache and old men grow terribly thin, dry up and die. This spirit is stronger than all the shamans and absolutely no one can rule over him. No one can portray him or bring him sacrifices. Every dog is also a spirit but, since he began to live with Man who nurtures and pets him, the Dog's spirit loses power to Man and the latter subjugates the spirit to himself in this manner. But if a person hits the Dog, then Noom will get even and change that person into a dog.

pp. 13-14.

Footnote:
The Nenets
The Nenets (which means, "man") are one of the three groups of the Samoyeds, found between the Lena and the Yenisey Rivers. The Samoyeds also include the Nganasam and the Enato. Linguistic and cultural features distinguish each subgroup. The Nenets occupy the largest territory and are found on both sides of the Urals, roaming between the forest edge and the Arctic coast into the Kanin, Gydan, and Yamal peninsulas.The Nenets’ language is Uralic, distantly related to the Finno-Ugrian family. They are a nomadic tribe with no permanent clan chief. Their main dwelling is a portable teepee.

3. CUCKOO—KAYCKOO
Nanai Legend

The kind spirit Hado created a good tree, cuckoo—kayckoo and a night bird—Topto, the cuckoo’s sister.The cuckoo is the nurturer of nature.She cries in the spring and from her voice come all the grasses and leaves. The oak tree lets out its buds later than all the others do. The cuckoo cries to him, cries, gets tired: how much strength she gives the oak tree, whose leaves begins to turn green. There is no time for the poor cuckoo to look after herself, to weave nests. The cuckoo has a servant—Nikanka, a small little bird. The cuckoo puts her eggs into her nest. Their Nikanka nurses the cuckoo’s nestlings, feeds and raises them.And the grass and the flower—all love the cuckoo. The grass and flowers gave her dokton, patterned stocking—therefore the cuckoo’s foot then dull, nowbecomes dark blue. Some birds draggedtheir feathers on the back of the cuckoo, and her back became motley. And the cuckoo in the spring gives her color to the other birds, animals and creatures and the grasses share with them this beauty. At night the cuckoo is quiet, she does not call. The bird Topto replaces her with a tender and mild voice.(pp. 16-17)

Note:
The Nanai
The Nanai lived along the Upper Amur River. They are a semi-sedentary tribe who used dogs not for transport but for hunting. Their
main means of support was fishing along with hunting elk, deer, wild pigs, and bear. They also kept some domestic animals, for example pigs and hens. Millet and maize were cultivated once Stalin forced the tribes onto collectivized farms. Maize and millet were not their main source of food.They had exogamic clans and practiced both polygamy and cross-cousin marriage. Their master spirits were the forest, fire the river and the mountain. Also present in their culture was the cult of the bear. They also had great respect for the tiger, which they avoided killing.There was a great Chinese influence on their culture. They had heated houses, iron cooking pots, cotton and silk. Their patterns resembled traditional Chinese patterns.

4. FROM WHERE THE EARTH BEGAN
Mansy Tale

Two birds—a large loon and a small baby loon—wanted to get the bottom of the earth. The large loon dove for a long time, but could not reach the bottom. Then the small baby loon dove. It kept diving and diving and also couldn’t get anywhere."Let’s dive together!" said the small baby loon to the large loon.They dove together. The kept swimming and swimming, but did not have enough breath, and came back to the surface. They took a breath together and again dove. They dove very deeply, but they didn’t reach the bottom. Recovering their breath, they dove for a third tim. For a long time they dove down, and finally reached the bottom where they took a piece of the
earth and set off for the return trip. The loons were under water for a very long time. Therefore, when they returned to the surface, blood
flowed from the breast of the large loon. That is why the chest of the loon is red now. Blood flowed from the back of the head of the small
young loon and now the back of the head of all young loons is red.The birds placed the earth on the water. Earth began to grow.

Much time passed. The daughter of the spirit of the sky went to her father and said: "Now man needs to be made…"The spirit of the sky called his brother, the spirit of the lower world, and ordered him to make a man. His brother made seven earthy, clay figures and brought them to his brother. The spirit of the sky said:
"Take these earthy, clay men to our sister, Mother Earth. Let her revive them."
The spirit of the lower world set off to Mother Earth and said:
"Sister, will you be able to revive these people?"
"I’ll revive them," answered Mother Earth," only you have to leave here."
Since that time when people appear in the world, the men have go away.

Note: Num is the Highest Divinity of the Nenets.

( pp.13-14)

5. FROM WHERE THE NORTHERN LIGHTS COME
Mansy Legend

A long, long time ago, when reindeer still weren’t friends with people, when the Khanty and the Mansy didn’t travel, didn’t fly, and
about the forest and marsh walked, and got their own food; the wise, ancient elders said, "Do not go—do not sense, do not walk—do not go." At the head of the river Found, the Mansy settled a herding, nomad camp. At the camp everyone had children, only to one family the spirits did not send children. For a long time the husband and wife asked the spirits to send them a child.And there when their life moved into old age, as day into night, a daughter was born unto them. The parents began to think about what to name her."To choose such a name that might bring her happiness," reflected the mother aloud, "What if we call her Vecherina? One evening—while resting, dreaming, so that our daughter does not grow lazy and sleepy.""Do not dear, mother, "said father, "morning is born in the evening.
Let’s name her Vecherina, our daughter in life can see her light the morning from the evening. (?)
"You, father, are gifted in story-telling, "retorted the mother.
"Our stories are often born in the morning, at bright bonfires, "answered father, "And after the tales are told, beautiful dreams are dreamt, strength increases in the arms and legs, shoulders become strong, the spines less bent over to he earth. Let Vecherina be for the people an evening story with hot, living fire in the heart; let her warm people’s hearts with her warmth.Mother agreed, took her baby and carried her to the bonfire, so that she could show her to all.The old wise woman, longer than all, looked at the girl, and then
said:"My people, this girl does not resemble other children that I have seen. On her face, like in the sky appear two dawns—the evening and the morning. She will bring to us all much gladness."

The Mansy, gladdened by the words of the wise woman, came to life. They began to sing and dance around the bonfire. Only Kompolen—the Swamp Spirit—became angry, ran to the swamp and pine woods with a wild cry and scream. On the countryside he swooped down—tress broke and with a groan fell dead to the earth. The birds became frightened—flew away in different directions.The animals rant off to the furthest high spot in the Taiga (Urmani), and the fish flattened themselves on the bottom of the stream.
Kompolen, the Swamp Spirit, scared everything and everyone: he couldn’t stand it when people were happy. The campfire went out—the joy of the people also went out. Life became difficult. The Mansy walked from morning to night about the
forest and taiga, looking for wild beasts, but finding few. Vecherina had already grown up, went on the hunt, and the hunt was still meager and unsuccessful.Somehow, when Vecherina was returning from the hunt, she stumbled across, in the forest, on a small, weak, baby reindeer. It lay with its legs stretched out and its head swung aside, like a broken twig in a drought. Vecherina understood that the mother of the reindeer had perished somewhere. The girls took it and carried it home. For a long time she walked and became tired herself. It is difficult to walk with a live load, but joyous. She walks and whispers:"Live, little baby reindeer, live. Here, I carry you home—I will give you fish soup and you will recover."Fish soup was substituted for milk for the baby reindeer, he began to get up on his feet and eat the juicy grass. And when he was completely strong, Vecherina began to lead him to the best grazing place. She shepherds all day and in the evening lights up a campfire, seats herself on a stump and the baby reindeer settles at her feet. Vecherina sings to him quiet lullabies. The campfire drives away the mosquitoes; her tender song brings on sleep. The baby reindeer’s closes its eyes and Vecherina presses a warm palm to the bumps on its head and sings about what her old mother has taught her—The earth and of that, that the young mother had sung while rocking her:

"Rockabye baby,
I sing a quiet song.
Sleep, deer deer,
Gather strength.
Your legs will be strong,
And your horns will grow,
Like pine trees, branches,
Like the sun, sunbeams…
Lower your eyelashes—
You will see a dream,
You walk in the wood to people—
You bear the sun on your horns.
Let your horns grow
Not from evil, but from good."

The baby reindeer slept soundly, and Vecherina kept singing. The birches in half sleep joined her, the golden pine tress quietly played too. Only the restless aspen leaves shivered and quietly whispered to each other:
"Oh, the evil sprit Kompolen should not hear that song."
Fulen overheard their whispers and loudly thundered:"Boo—boo—boo! Don’t be afraid of the villain: sparrows have stopped up his ears, they were plugged up with earth." The little reindeer sleeps, the earth sleeps and clouds lay on their
dark sides for a long time. The wind dozed in the forest under the trees. Only the little breezes are quietly flying over the little deer, over Vecherina—listening to the song. Then the little breezes took into their palms the quiet song and smoke from the campfire and dispersed it all over the forest and gave it out to the beasts.And the animals were drawn to the campfire and Vecherina. First
arrived the reindeer, behind them the elk. The bear arrived and turned his nose to the smoke.For many days Vecherina received the animals at the campfire, from stronger, became happy, with the reindeer and elk romped, played and butted—tried his strength. Time went by. They gave the deer sufficient food, gave it enough water, the rain bathed it completely, the snow bleached him out and the winds taught him boldness. He became mature, strong, and handsome. He didn’t join the herd but floated along like a white cloud. Now he didn’t go alone to the campfire in the evening, but brought many friends. And Vecherina spent whole days gathering dry stumps and tree mushrooms, set up many different campfires, lulled all of them with her heartfelt songs.

Summer passed, fall came, white mosquito-like, snowflakes began to swirl. Now she was surrounded by white mosquitoes—snowflakes. Vecherina’s heart became cold. She thought, "My reindeer fried will leave her. To whom will she sing her lullabies." The smart White Reindeer understood her, approached her, and touched his warm lips to her hands and cheeks, as if to say, "We will be with you, my sister, only call."Vecherina cheered up, thanked the White Reindeer, then put on him a harness with embroidered patterns, decorated his horns with bright ribbons, sat on a light sledge, a carved khorai in her hands. The White Reindeer pushed itself away from the earth with its easy, strong legs and soared higher and higher into the sky. And floated through the skies like a soaring bird, gently touching the sky with the points of its adorned horns. Stripes in the sky from the reindeer’s horns began to wave, quiver. Vecherina stretched out her hand, reached out to them—and the stripes came to life, began to sparkle, blaze with a bright, living, many-colored northern lights.The iridescent, multicolors embraced the icy, Mansy earth, penetrated into the little huts through the little windows, covered with elk-skinned mats instead of glass, illuminated the dark corners of the lowly huts, lit up the sad faces of the Mansy who were longing for light. Happiness swamped their hearts and enticed them out under the colored sky, into the frost.

The Mansy ran outside, they saw under the rainbow-colored sky Vecherina and her White Reindeer. And the latter slowly floated under
the blazing stripes, easily touching them, like a string of the ancient sankvaltap , giving birth to colorful music. The music spilled over onto the sky, spilled over onto the earth and gladdened the Mansy. Since that long-ago time on frosty nights, when the northern sky lights up with the colorful northern lights, for the Mansy comes a holiday. They go outside to dance, with them invisibly circles even Vecherina.

( pp. 19-23)

The Mansy
The Mansy are found across the Ural Mountains around the Chusovaya River. It is believed that they traveled east from the Volga River as Western Europe expanded. The language of the Mansy people is most closely related to Hungarian and Finnish. Their language is also
comparable to that of the Khantys. There are many dialects among the different groups of Mansy.The Mansy are often grouped together with the Khanty who are found geographically north of the Mansy. They share a similar way of life, clothing styles, dwellings as well as religious and social customs. The Mansy are semi-nomadic, living in log huts or lodges made of branches covered with earth in the winter. In the spring and summer they hunt and fish. Some groups keep reindeer herds, a practice they adopted from the Nenets-Samoyeds. In the southern part of their territory, agriculture is possible. There they mainly grow barley and raise cattle horses.Their religion resembles those of other Northern people. They have a pantheon of nature Gods, the supreme God being Num Torem. Like other tribes they believe that there are spirits in all natural phenomena.